Compruebe qué conjunto de sensores se necesita para vigilar las posibles enfermedades de este cultivo.
Modelos de enfermedades - albaricoque, mirabel, ciruela, ciruela pasa
Albaricoque, mirabel, ciruela y ciruela pasa
modelos de enfermedad
Roya
Patógeno
El hongo patógeno Tranzschelia discolor infects plants of the genus Prunus, including almond, apricot, cherry, peach, nectarine, plum, and prune. The fungus is classified into specialized forms based on its host: T. discolor f. sp. persicae en melocotón, T. discolor f. sp. dulcis on almond, and T. discolor f. sp. domesticae en ciruela pasa.
The pathogen undergoes multiple spore stages and requires two distinct hosts (alternate hosts) to complete its life cycle. In California, the only confirmed alternate host is Anémona coronaria (Ranunculaceae). The different spore types include urediniospores, teliospores, basidiospores, and aeciospores, though only urediniospores and teliospores occur on Prunus species.
Rusty brown, single-celled urediniospores are produced on peach and can cause secondary infections, leading to repeated cycles of spore production and reinfection, ultimately resulting in epidemic outbreaks. Teliospores, which develop later in the season on peach, do not reinfect Prunus species. Instead, they overwinter and germinate in the following season, producing basidiospores that infect the alternate host, A. coronaria.
Aeciospores produced on A. coronaria can only infect Prunus species, initiating the first cycle of urediniospore production in spring. However, because A. coronaria is rare in stone fruit orchards, it is unlikely to be the primary infection source. Instead, the fungus likely overwinters as mycelium in infected fruit wood from the previous season. In spring, these infections develop into twig cankers, serving as the primary inoculum source each year. Urediniospores from twig cankers infect leaves, where additional spores form in lesions. Under favorable conditions, the disease can reach epidemic levels.
Síntomas
Common symptoms of the disease include twig cankers, leaf lesions, and fruit lesions. However, not all symptoms may appear in every growing season.
Twig cankers are the first symptoms to appear in spring, developing after petal fall during fruit formation on one-year-old wood. These cankers manifest as blisters and longitudinal splits in the bark.
The infection begins with water-soaked lesions that swell and rupture the epidermal tissue of the twig. Cankers are typically found on the upper, reddish side of the twig. Within a few days (depending on temperature), the cankers mature and produce rusty brown, powdery masses of specialized spores called urediniospores. These urediniospores are spiny and sharply constricted at the base. By the end of the season, old cankers may still be visible, though they may persist into the following season, they no longer produce viable spores.
Leaf lesions usually develop after twig cankers form in spring and may continue to appear until autumn. Severe infections can lead to defoliation, especially when multiple lesions are present on a single leaf. The first infected leaves are typically located near the twig cankers, which serve as the primary source of inoculum. Initially, lesions appear as pale yellowish-green spots visible on both leaf surfaces. As they progress, they become bright yellow and angular, eventually developing necrotic centers. On the lower leaf surface, numerous spore pustules (uredinia) appear, turning rusty brown as they produce powdery masses of urediniospores. By the end of the season, leaf lesions may darken to brown or black and begin producing two-celled teliospores. These lesions remain small, angular, and rusty brown in color.
Fruit lesions develop later in the growing season, following the appearance of leaf symptoms. Initially, small brownish spots with green halos form on mature, yellow fruits. As the fruit ripens and reddens, the halos transition to a greenish-yellow color. Multiple infections can develop on a single fruit, creating entry points for secondary fungal pathogens such as Monilinia, Colletotrichum, Alternariay Cladosporium, leading to further fruit decay.
Modelo FieldClimate
Spores of the fungal pathogen Tranzschelia discolor germinate across a wide temperature range, from 5°C to 30°C, with an optimal range of 15°C to 25°C under wet conditions. Under controlled conditions, the ideal combination of wetness duration and temperature for infection was found to be between 18 and 36 hours at 15°C to 20°C. The severity of the disease increases when rainfall occurs in late spring and summer. In severe cases, trees can experience rapid defoliation due to heavy rust infections.
To assess the risk of rust infection, we calculate a critical period based on precipitation, leaf wetness, and temperature. When the infection curve reaches 100%, it indicates that optimal conditions for rust infection have been met in the orchard. At this point, preventive plant protection measures should be implemented to mitigate the risk of severe disease development.
Literatura
Adaskaveg JE, Soto-Estrada, A, Förster, H, Thompson, D, Hasey, J, Manji, BT, Teviotdale, B. (2000). Peach rust caused by Tranzschelia discolor in California. University of California. Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Monilinia laxa
Patógeno
Monilinia laxa, the causative agent of brown rot in stone fruits, follows a cyclical pattern that ensures its persistence and propagation. The fungus overwinters in infected plant tissues, such as twigs, branches, old flower parts, or mummified fruits. In the spring, it produces asexual conidia on these infected plant debris. Additionally, sexual propagative structures called apothecia develop on fallen fruits on the ground, producing ascospores. Both conidia and ascospores are disseminated by wind and rain, leading to new infections in blossoms and young shoots.
Environmental conditions significantly influence the infection process of Monilinia laxa. The fungus thrives in warm, wet weather, with optimal infection temperatures ranging between 15°C and 25°C (59°F to 77°F). Conidios begin to develop on infected plant debris once temperatures reach 4°C (40°F), and infections occur when temperatures exceed 10°C (50°F). High humidity and wet conditions facilitate the spread and germination of spores, making rainy periods particularly conducive to disease development.
Síntomas
Los síntomas iniciales de Monilinia laxa infection manifest as blossom blight, where infected flowers wilt, turn brown, and may cling to the tree. This blight can extend to twigs and branches, leading to the formation of cankers—sunken, necrotic areas on the wood. Under humid conditions, ash-gray to brown spore masses can form on diseased flowers and twig cankers, serving as sources of secondary inoculum.
As the growing season progresses, the fungus can infect developing fruits, leading to brown rot. Infected fruits exhibit brown, rapidly expanding lesions, often covered with grayish spore masses under humid conditions. These fruits may become mummified and remain attached to the tree, serving as reservoirs for the pathogen. The disease can cause significant pre- and post-harvest losses, especially in warm, wet seasons, affecting both yield and fruit quality.
Modelo FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad de las hojas
- Humedad relativa
- Precipitación
The graph illustrates the optimal conditions for Monilinia infections in orchards, based on factors such as leaf wetness, temperature, and relative humidity. Monilinia laxa is well adapted to relatively low temperatures in spring and can cause infections at temperatures as low as 5°C, even with a short period of leaf wetness. A 100% infection level on the graph represents the most favorable conditions for the fungus to penetrate plant tissues and initiate infection.
To support disease management, curative plant protection measures should be considered. The graph provides two severity classes—infection and severe infection—based on factors such as fruit variety, orchard history, and the experience of farmers. These classifications help guide decision-making for effective disease control.
Literatura
- Casals, C. (2010). Effect of temperature and water activity on in vitro germination of Monilinia spp. Journal of Applied Microbiology.
- UC IPM. (n.d.). UC Management Guidelines for Brown Rot Blossom Blight on Almond. Victoria, Department of Environment and Primary Industries. (n.d.). Brown-rot of stone fruits.
Monilinia spp.
Patógeno
El patógeno de la podredumbre parda, Monilinia spp.afecta a melocotones y nectarinas a través de un ciclo de vida que comienza con la hibernación en frutos momificados y cancros en ramitas. Cuando las temperaturas suben en primavera, el hongo produce esporas que infectan las flores y los brotes jóvenes, dando lugar al tizón de las flores y a los chancros de las ramas. Estas infecciones sirven como fuentes de inóculo para las infecciones de los frutos más adelante en la temporada. Los frutos maduros son cada vez más susceptibles a la podredumbre parda, especialmente en condiciones cálidas, húmedas o mojadas, que favorecen la rápida progresión de la enfermedad. Las lesiones en la fruta, como las causadas por insectos o granizo, aumentan aún más la susceptibilidad. Una gestión eficaz incluye prácticas culturales, como la eliminación de frutos momificados y ramas descortezadas, así como controles químicos que incluyen aplicaciones de fungicidas durante los periodos críticos de floración y precosecha.
Síntomas
Monilinia spp. se manifiesta a través de varios síntomas distintos. Durante la primavera, las flores infectadas se marchitan, se vuelven marrones y pueden cubrirse de masas de esporas grisáceas, que a menudo permanecen adheridas a las ramitas y sirven como fuentes de inóculo secundario. La infección puede extenderse a las ramitas, dando lugar a la formación de pequeños cancros gomosos que pueden ceñir y matar los brotes afectados. En la fruta madura, los síntomas iniciales aparecen como pequeñas manchas marrones circulares que se agrandan rápidamente en condiciones favorables, pudriendo toda la fruta en dos días. Estas zonas podridas a menudo desarrollan masas de esporas de color bronceado a gris. Los frutos afectados suelen marchitarse, adquirir un color entre marrón y negro, y pueden caer al suelo o permanecer momificados en el árbol, lo que contribuye a la persistencia y propagación de la enfermedad.
Modelo FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad de las hojas
La curva a 100% indica condiciones óptimas para un Monilia infección en los huertos. Los cálculos se basan en la humedad de las hojas, la temperatura y la humedad relativa.
Monilia spp. está bien adaptado a temperaturas relativamente bajas durante la primavera y causa infecciones a temperaturas tan bajas como 5°C dentro de un periodo muy corto de duración de la humedad. La infección 100% en el gráfico indica las condiciones óptimas para que el hongo penetre en el tejido vegetal y cause infecciones. Hay que tener en cuenta las medidas fitosanitarias curativas.
Literatura
- Peter, K. A. (2024, 19 de junio). Enfermedad de la fruta de hueso - Podredumbre parda. Penn State Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/stone-fruit-disease-brown-rot
- Biggs, A. R. (2016). Brown rot of stone fruits. Ohioline, Ohio State University Extension. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-fru-29
Agujero de disparo
Patógeno
The shot hole fungus overwinters in infected buds and can infect leaves, stems, and fruits during cold, rainy periods in spring and autumn. Rainfall is essential for the fungus to spread and infect healthy plant tissues.
The fungus can persist for several years in cankers or buds of infected twigs. Under favorable conditions, it continues to grow, even during winter. In spring, conidia are dispersed by rain to flowers and young leaves, initiating new infections. During unfavorable conditions, such as dry weather, conidia remain viable for several months. Rain is necessary for spore dispersal, while humid conditions are required for germination. The fungus can grow at temperatures above 2°C.
When moisture is continuous for at least 24 hours and temperatures exceed 2°C, infection can occur. As temperatures rise during the growing season, shorter moisture periods are required for germination—for example, only six hours at 25°C. Spores primarily spread through splashing water and can remain viable for months in dry conditions. Under optimal conditions, spores are produced from infected buds and stem lesions throughout the growing season. Most peach, nectarine, apricot, and almond cultivars are highly susceptible, whereas cherry and plum are less affected, displaying leaf and fruit symptoms only when extended moisture periods occur in late spring and early summer.
Síntomas
Infected leaves develop small brown spots with reddish margins, approximately 1 mm in diameter. These spots expand into larger circular lesions, around 3 mm in diameter. As the disease progresses, the affected areas dry out and fall from the leaf, creating a shot-hole appearance. Infected twigs display distinct brown margins with a necrotic center that does not drop out but instead exudes large amounts of gum. Additionally, lignification of infected twigs is hindered, and the lesions gradually develop into cankers. In severe cases, the disease may lead to premature defoliation of the tree.
On fruits, the infection initially appears as small, circular, deep-purple spots. As the disease progresses, symptoms vary depending on the fruit type. On apricots, the spots become brown, raised, and rough, giving the fruit a scabby texture. In peaches and nectarines, the scabs deepen into pronounced indentations. Infected fruits often develop gummy spots, and in severe cases, cracks may form in the skin.
Modelo FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad relativa
- Humedad de las hojas
- Precipitación
Favorable infection periods for the disease “shot hole” are determined based on precipitation, leaf wetness, relative humidity, and temperature. Three levels of infection severity are assessed. Weak infections can begin under conditions of high relative humidity and warm temperatures. Moderate and severe infections are triggered by rain events and become more severe with prolonged leaf wetness and warm temperatures. A 100% infection rating on the scale indicates optimal conditions for fungal infection in the field.
Plant protection measures should be implemented based on the severity of the infection, taking into account past experience, orchard history, and the susceptibility of the fruit variety. Appropriate actions should be considered for light, moderate, or severe infection levels to minimize disease impact.
Literatura
- UC IPM. (n.d.). Shot Hole Disease / Peach / Agriculture. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. Retrieved from https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/peach/shot-hole-disease/
- Utah State University Extension. (n.d.). Coryneum or Shothole Blight. Retrieved from https://extension.usu.edu/planthealth/research/coryneum-or-shothole-blight
Xanthomonas arboricola
Patógeno
Xanthomonas arboricola is an aerobic, gram-negative bacterium. The bacterium overwinters in the intercellular spaces of the cortex, phloem, and xylem parenchyma of the peach tree. On plum and apricot trees, summer cankers form within one season, developing further in the following spring and serving as a source of inoculum. Additionally, plum buds and fallen leaves act as overwintering sources for the bacterial disease.
In spring, the bacteria begin to multiply, causing the epidermis to rupture—this results in visible lesions known as spring cankers. Inoculum from these cankers is disseminated by rain and wind, infecting healthy plant tissues through stomata. Lesions then develop on the leaves, exuding bacteria and leading to secondary infections.
Summer cankers form in the green tissue of the shoot but are sealed off by a periderm layer and dry out during the summer, reducing bacterial viability. Therefore, summer cankers in plum and peach trees are not significant overwintering sites or sources of initial infection for the following season. Generally, late-season infections of shoots—occurring during autumn rains and leaf fall—serve as the primary inoculum source for the following spring.
Síntomas
On peach leaves, small, pale-green to yellow circular or irregular spots appear initially. These spots enlarge and darken to deep purple, brown, or black. As the disease progresses, the affected areas may drop out, giving the leaves a shot-hole appearance, with a dark ring of diseased tissue left behind. Infected leaves often turn yellow and prematurely drop. On plum fruit, symptoms vary depending on the cultivar, ranging from large, sunken black lesions to small, pit-like lesions.
On peach twigs, spring cankers develop on overwintering twigs and watersprouts before green shoots emerge. Initially, they appear as small, water-soaked, dark blisters (1–10 cm in size), sometimes girdling the twig and causing the death of its upper portion. Below the dead area, where bacteria are present, a dark streak known as “black tip” forms. In plum and apricot trees, cankers are perennial and continue to develop in twigs that are two or three years old.
Modelo FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad relativa
- Humedad de las hojas
The bacterial disease thrives in warm seasons with temperatures ranging from 10–28°C, as well as in conditions with frequent light rainfall, strong winds, and heavy dew. In orchards, local dispersal occurs primarily through rain splash.
We classify infections into three severity levels: weak, moderate, and severe. The severity to be considered depends on the amount of inoculum present (based on the previous year’s epidemiology), the susceptibility of the variety, and prevailing weather conditions. A value of 100% indicates optimal conditions for bacterial infection.
Literatura
- EPPO. (2021). PM 7/064 (2) Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni. EPPO Bulletin, 51(3), 468-487. https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.12756
- McManus, P. S., & Jones, A. L. (1995). Bacterial spot of peach and plum. Integrated Pest Management, Michigan State University. https://www.canr.msu.edu/ipm/agriculture/fruit/bacterial_spot_of_peach_and_plum
Enroscamiento de la hoja de taphrina
Patógeno
Taphrina deformansel agente causante del rizado de la hoja del melocotonero, pasa el invierno en forma de esporas en las superficies de los árboles, incluidas la corteza y las escamas de las yemas. A principios de la primavera, durante la hinchazón y apertura de las yemas, estas esporas germinan e infectan las hojas emergentes. Las condiciones climáticas frescas y húmedas, en particular las temperaturas cálidas acompañadas de humedad procedente de la lluvia, el rocío o el riego, son óptimas para la infección. Por el contrario, el tiempo seco durante la hinchazón y la apertura de las yemas limita la aparición de la enfermedad. A medida que las hojas maduran, se vuelven menos susceptibles a la infección, y las infecciones secundarias son poco frecuentes. El hongo produce esporas en la superficie de las hojas infectadas, que son dispersadas por la lluvia o el viento y se alojan en las grietas de la corteza y en las escamas de las yemas para pasar el invierno y perpetuar el ciclo de la enfermedad en temporadas posteriores.
Síntomas
El patógeno induce una serie de síntomas en melocotones y nectarinas. Las hojas infectadas emergen en primavera mostrando engrosamiento, rizado y distorsión, a menudo acompañados de decoloración rojiza o púrpura. A medida que la enfermedad progresa, estas hojas pueden volverse amarillas o marrones y, finalmente, caer prematuramente, provocando una posible defoliación. Los brotes infectados pueden hincharse, atrofiarse y morir, sobre todo si la infección es grave. Los síntomas en la fruta incluyen manchas rugosas, irregulares y elevadas, a menudo de color rojizo, que pueden provocar la caída prematura de la fruta o hacerla no comercializable. Si no se controlan, las infecciones repetidas pueden debilitar el árbol, reduciendo la producción de fruta y el vigor general.
Modelo FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
El gráfico muestra los periodos de riesgo, basados en la temperatura durante ese tiempo.El patógeno prospera a temperaturas entre 16 y 27 °C. El gráfico indica que en 100% se alcanzaron las temperaturas óptimas durante el tiempo suficiente para que se produjera un evento de infección del patógeno.
Literatura
- Biggs, A. R. (2016). Rizado de la hoja del melocotonero. Ohioline, Extensión de la Universidad Estatal de Ohio. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-fru-26
- Universidad de Agricultura y Recursos Naturales de California. (sin fecha). Rizado de la hoja del melocotonero. UC IPM Pest Notes. Obtenido el 6 de marzo de 2025, del sitio Web: https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/peach-leaf-curl/pest-notes/.
Oidio
Patógeno
El agente patógeno es Sphaerotheca pannosa. It overwinters as mycelia in infected buds or cleistothecia and they serve as the primary inoculum.
Conidios (esporas asexuales) y ascosporas (sexual spores) are produced by mycelium and cleistothecium, respectively. They are carried by wind to susceptible plants and once landing, they germinate and produce a germ tube which forms hyphae, spreading the infection. Secondary infections occur mainly via conidia. Those produced by primary and subsequent infections are carried by wind and rain, continuing the infection. Once environmental conditions become harsh, the fungus shifts to sexual reproduction mainly and the cycle repeats.
Síntomas
Al principio aparecen ampollas en las zonas afectadas, que pronto se cubren de micelio pulverulento de color blanco a grisáceo y de esporas. Esta infección fúngica provoca la deformación y el enrollamiento de las hojas, así como su caída prematura. Los capullos y las flores también son vulnerables; pueden no abrirse correctamente y mostrar decoloración y retraso del crecimiento. Además, los frutos son muy susceptibles: pueden desarrollar manchas ásperas y corchosas que pasan del rosa al marrón oscuro en la piel, y el epicarpio se vuelve correoso y duro.
Modelo FieldClimate
Modelo general de riesgo de Sphaerotheca pannosa
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad de las hojas
The model considers air temperatures and leaf wetness duration to calculate the risk. The optimum temperature ranges from 21 to 27’c and the disease development gets slower at temperatures above 28’c. Since spores and mycelium are sensitive to extreme heat and direct sunlight, warm moderate temperatures, and shade are generally favorable. No moisture is required for the fungus to establish and grow after infection. Many more conidia are formed in dry conditions than in humid.
A value exceeding 60% indicates a high risk of infection, and plant protection measurements should be considered.
Literatura
- Domínguez-Serrano, D., García-Velasco, R., Mora-Herrera, M. E., Salgado-Siclan, M. L., & Gonzalez-Diaz, J. G. (2016). El oídio del rosal (Podosphaera pannosa). Agrociencia, 50(7), 901-917.
- Mulbrhan, A., Brikity, A., Yohana, S. R., & Danish, S. (2016). Survey of Disease Incidence and Severity of Powdery Mildews on Roses (Rosa Sinensis L.) in Greenhouses in Maisirwa, Eritrea. Revista Asiática de Ciencia y Tecnología, 7(5), 2850-2856.
- Ram, V., & Bhardwaj, L. N. (2004). Enfermedades de la fruta de hueso y su gestión. En Enfermedades de Frutas y Hortalizas: Volumen II: Diagnóstico y manejo (pp. 485-510). Dordrecht: Springer Países Bajos.
- Yarwood, C. E., Sidky, S., Cohen, M. O. R. R. I. S., & Santilli, V. I. N. C. E. N. T. (1954). Temperature relations of powdery miluews. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/powdery-mildew-on-fruits-and-berries/pest-notes
Modelo de sarna de la fruta de hueso
Patógeno
Cladosporium carpophilumel agente causante de la sarna del melocotonero, pasa el invierno principalmente en forma de micelio en las lesiones de las ramitas de los brotes de la temporada anterior. En primavera, cuando la humedad supera los 70%, el hongo produce conidios (esporas asexuales) en estas lesiones. Estas esporas se diseminan por el movimiento del aire y las salpicaduras de agua, infectando los frutos en desarrollo, los nuevos brotes y las hojas. Las condiciones óptimas para la germinación de las esporas y el crecimiento del hongo se dan a temperaturas entre 18°C y 24°C (65°F y 75°F), y la lluvia y la humedad elevada facilitan la infección. En particular, hay un período de incubación prolongado de aproximadamente 40 a 70 días antes de que los síntomas sean visibles en la fruta.
Síntomas
La enfermedad se manifiesta en forma de pequeñas manchas aterciopeladas de color entre oliva y negro en el fruto, a menudo más graves cerca del extremo del pedúnculo. Estas lesiones pueden unirse, dando lugar a zonas enfermas más grandes y a posibles grietas en la fruta. En las ramas y brotes, las infecciones aparecen como lesiones ligeramente elevadas, redondas a ovaladas, de color marrón con márgenes púrpuras más tarde en la temporada. Aunque las infecciones foliares son menos comunes, pueden producirse en condiciones favorables. Las infecciones graves pueden reducir la calidad y el rendimiento de la fruta, lo que subraya la importancia de unas prácticas de gestión eficaces.
Modelos FieldClimate
Sensores necesarios:
- Temperatura del aire
- Humedad de las hojas
El riesgo de Cladosporium carpophilum La infección viene determinada por las condiciones de humedad durante la primavera y principios del verano, tras la caída de los pétalos. La enfermedad suele ser más grave en zonas bajas, sombrías y húmedas con escaso movimiento de aire. Las curvas de infección aumentan durante los periodos de humedad de las hojas dentro de un rango de temperaturas de 7 a 24°C y con un riesgo de 100% se han dado las condiciones óptimas para que el hongo penetre en el tejido de la planta. Tras un riesgo de 100% deben considerarse medidas fitosanitarias curativas.
Literatura
- Ellis, M. A. (2016). Sarna del melocotón, la nectarina, la ciruela y el albaricoque. Ohioline. Obtenido de https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-fru-39
- Garofalo, E. (2020). Peach scab. New England Tree Fruit Management Guide. Retrieved from https://netreefruit.org/stone-fruit/peaches-nectarines/diseases/peach-scab
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